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According to the form all the muscles are traditionally divided into three basic groups: long, short and wide muscles. Long muscles compose the free parts of the extremities. The wide muscles form the walls of the body cavities. Some short muscles, of which stapedus is the smallest muscle in the human body, form facial musculature.

Some muscles are called according to the structure of their fibres, for example radiated muscles; others according to their uses, for example extensors or according to their directions, for example, – oblique.

Great research work was carried out by many scientists to determine the functions of the muscles. Their work helped to establish that the muscles were the active agents of motion and contraction.

New words

muscles – мышцы active – активный

motor apparatus – двигательный аппарат

various – различный

movement – движение

elongated – удлиненный

threadlike – нитевидный

be bound – быть связанным

ability – возможность

capable – способность

scientist – ученый

basic – основной

12. Bones

Bone is the type of connective tissue that forms the body's supporting framework, the skeleton. Serve to protect the internal organs from injury. The bone marrow inside the bones is the body's major producer of both red and white blood cells.

The bones of women are generally lighter than those of men, while children's bones are more resilient than those of adults. Bones also respond to certain physical physiological changes: atrophy, or waste away.

Bones are generally classified in two ways. When classified on the basis of their shape, they fall into four categories: flat bones, such as the ribs; long bones, such as the thigh bone; short bones, such as the wrist bones; and irregular bones, such as the vertebrae. When classified on the basis of how they develop, bones are divided into two groups: en—dochondral bones and intramembraneous bones. En—dochondral bones, such as the long bones and the bones at the base of the skull, develop from cartilage tissue. Intra—membraneous bones, such as the flat bones of the roof of the skull, are not formed from cartilage but develop under or within a connective tissue membrane. Although en—dochondral bones and intramembraneous bones form in different ways, they have the same structure.

The formation of bone tissue (ossification) begins early in embryological development. The bones reach their full size when the person is about 25.

Most adult bone is composed of two types of tissue: anouter layer of compact bone and an inner layer of spongy bone. Compact bone is strong and dense. Spongy bone is light and porous and contains bone marrow. The amount of each type of tissue varies in different bones. The flat bones of the skull consist almost entirely of com pact bone, with very little spongy tissue. In a long bone, such as the thigh bone, the shaft, called the diaphysis, is made up largely of compact bone. While the ends, called epyphyses, consist mostly of spongy bone. In a long bone, marrow is also present inside the shaft, in a cavity called the medullary cavity.